Related concepts
Modified sport
Modifying a sport allows the governing organisation to offer a single product (i.e., sport) in several different (but related) formats to suit a wide range of needs. 11
Modified sports can take many forms but are generally designed to be an introductory, or more accessible version, of a sport. Programs may focus on children, mature-age participants, persons with disability, the time poor, people looking for more social (less competitive) opportunities, or gender. 12
Modified sports also help to develop general movement skills and basic techniques. Modified equipment and rules are used to match the capabilities (age, physical size, motor skill proficiency, etc.) of participants. 13, 14
For more information see the Modified Sports topic.
- Play more, enjoy more, keep playing; rugby is a simple game, Ben Jones, Ed Hope, Andrew Hammond, et.al., International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, Volume 16(3), pp. 636-645, (June 2021). Competitive Engineering (CE) is a structurally-based competitive climate process designed to create a more positive experience in youth sport. CE encompasses changes to league structures, equipment, pitch-size, and game rules. For example, rule changes that stipulate greater involvement (e.g., playing time) or action (e.g., increasing scoring opportunities) are designed to improve engagement. Despite this, few studies have examined whether CE-based rule changes influence factors known to influence drop out from sport. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of a rule change in youth rugby whereby any player selected as part of a match day squad must play at least half a game or equivalent (i.e., the ‘Half-Game Rule’). To achieve this, we studied the influence of the rule change on player reported outcomes throughout the 2017/2018 playing season. Players who “always or almost always” experienced playing at least half a game more often than other players; reported higher enjoyment, than those who played less regularly (F = 35.6, P < .001). Importantly, players who reported higher levels of enjoyment also reported greater intentions to continue playing rugby (F = 6.4, P < .002). Findings support the use of CE to facilitate player enjoyment in team sports and could lead to reduced attrition in youth sport more generally.
- Baskin – a new basketball-based sport for reverse-integration of athletes with disabilities: an analysis of the relative importance of player roles, Davide Sisti, Stefano Amatori, Roberto Bensi, et.al., Sport in Society, Volume 24(2), pp.277-285, (2021). Reverse integration in sports is a kind of integration in which athletes with disabilities outnumber their non-disabled counterparts. A new sport that reflects the concept of reverse integration is ‘Baskin’, which has similar rules to traditional basketball, with a difference: players are divided into five roles, according to the severity of their disability or lack thereof. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to evaluate, the degree of contribution to the match outcome of the Baskin scores of participants in different roles. The investigation was conducted by analysing the 2015/2016 Baskin league season, comparing the points scored by each player role. Results showed that the contribution of athletes with severe disabilities is decisive to the outcome of the games. Within the concept of reversed integration, some changes to the rules could be made to spread the scoring more evenly across the various player roles on the Baskin team.
- Implementation of a modified sport programme to increase participation: Key stakeholder perspectives, Buszard T, Oppici L, Westerbeek H, et.al., Journal of Sports Sciences, Volume 38(8), pp.945-952, (March 2020). Modified sports, whereby equipment and rules are manipulated to facilitate skill performance, have been shown to promote skill learning and potentially increase participation. However, it is currently unexplored how key stakeholders - coaches and key figures working in National associations - who are critical stakeholders in implementing and delivering sport programmes, perceive modified sport. This study explored how tennis coaches and key figures working within tennis National associations perceived the impact of implementing a modified tennis campaign on participation and skill development in children and adults. Key figures and coaches around the world completed an online questionnaire. Both groups considered that modified tennis was positively associated with increasing and sustaining participation, skill learning, talent development and people's attitude towards tennis. Furthermore, participants thought that a rule change (i.e., use of a low-compression ball in children competitions) and the campaign's core messages (i.e., "serve, rally, score" and "easy, fun, and healthy") have been critical for the success of the campaign. These results support previous research on the positive impact of modified tennis on skill development and provide a further impetus on implementing modified sports to increase participation. Other sports can adopt similar strategies to improve their modified programmes.
- Why just exercise if you can play? Interest in a modified sports program to enhance physical activity among primary care patients, Christopher Sciamanna, Andrew Mowen, Jennifer Kraschnewski, et.al., Preventive Medicine Reports, Volume 8, pp.273-278, (December 2017). This survey was designed to determine the interest of primary care patients in participating in program designed to maximize enjoyment. Primary care patients (n=540) in Central Pennsylvania reported their interest in participating in a “a regular fitness program where people your own age played games, such as softball, floor hockey and soccer, that were made to be easier to play and less competitive.” Mean age was 58.4 years. More than one-third, including 59.6% of those under age 50, were interested in the modified sports fitness program. After adjusting for confounders, patients under age 40 were 5.9 times as interested (v. age > 70) and non-white patients were 3.4 times interested. Female patients and those with hypertension, high cholesterol or obesity were equally interested. A fitness program that consists of modified sports may be of interest to most primary care patients under age 50. Patients' initial interest appears high enough to warrant further development and testing.
Access to resources
Where possible, direct links to full-text and online resources are provided. However, where links are not available, you may be able to access documents directly by searching our licenced full-text databases (note: user access restrictions apply). Alternatively, you can ask your institutional, university, or local library for assistance—or purchase documents directly from the publisher. You may also find the information you’re seeking by searching Google Scholar.
Modified sport
Modified sports can take many forms but are generally designed to be an introductory, or more accessible version, of a sport.
Related concepts
Social sport
'Social sport' also sometimes called ‘informal sport’ is a term used to identify engagement in sport in a less formal context, e.g., beach or backyard cricket, a group of friends who get together to play football or basketball, cycling or running groups. 15
Social sports may have many of the elements of modified or recreational sports, including elements of competition, and a similar look and feel to standard or traditional sports, but there is generally no governing organisation to influence the participants' intent, or assign external value to any competition outcome. 15
People engage in social sport for many reasons, most of them intrinsic, e.g., for enjoyment, personal health and fitness, emotional wellbeing (feeling good), and social interaction (inclusion and friendship). 15
Sporting organisations increasingly view social sport as a way to increase their brand appeal, satisfy consumer demand, create a long-term affiliation with their (potential) customers, and engage a wide range of ability levels within a single sporting context. 16, 17, 18
A common strategy underpinning a social sport product is to reduce the need for acquired skills and experience, while highlighting the social and fitness components of the activity. This approach is intended to create a wider appeal to different ages and persons having different skill levels, encouraging them to participate together.
The below examples illustrate how a standard sport can become more social (Barefoot Bowls, AFL 9’s) and a social sport (Basketball 3x3, Pole sports) can become more mainstream.
- Barefoot Bowls uses existing bowls venues in a (primarily) social context to stage the activity. Participants don’t need any experience to have fun with the game. Some expert guidance is provided as part of the hosting arrangements, as well as equipment. Sessions are organised upon request, so a regular playing schedule is not necessary.
- AFL 9s. A more ‘social’ version of Australian Rules Football that can be played on smaller fields with less players and is also being actively promoted internationally. 19 The game can be mixed gender and offers both tackling and non-contact versions, making it suitable for people of any age or skill level.
- Basketball 3x3. An informal street and playground favourite for many years 3x3 has been brought into the mainstream of sport as national and international governing bodies formalised this version of the game—including launching a World Cup in 2012. 20 In 2017 the sport was selected as an official Olympic sport for the Tokyo 2020 Games. 21 This is an example of a social sport that has become mainstream by standardising rules (ten minute periods, 12 second shot-clock, played on a half-court, etc.), and providing a pathway to formal competition.
- Pole sports. In around 10 years 'pole' moved from being a popular form of fitness training (2000), to first introduction as a sport (2006), the foundation of the International Pole Sports Federation (IPSF) (2009), and continues to work towards recognition by the International Olympic Committee. The IPSF has worked to standardise elements including scoring, judging, and competitions. The first World Championship was held in 2012. A number of disciplines and categories have now been introduced including junior and senior men's and women's singles, doubles, mixed, artistic, para, and ultra. In January 2024 IPSF recognised 24 national federations (including Australia). It is an example of the potential for an 'activity' to develop into an organised sport. 22, 23
- The Rise of Informal Sport: Public Forum Summary, Dawn Penney, Ruth Jeanes, Monash University, (27 April 2020). A summary of the Forum including key issues raised and discussed. Discussion highlighted the complexities associated with the notion of ‘informal sport’, with examples shared of initiatives and programs that are designed to ‘semi-formalise’ and thereby support, informal participation. parkrun (https://www.parkrun.com.au) was associated with the notion of ‘formal-informal’ and as also illustrating the key role of volunteers in sustainability.
- Pushing casual sport to the margins threatens cities’ social cohesion, Amanda Wise, Keith Parry, Kristine Aquino, et.al., The Conversation, (30 April 2018). Park soccer, social cricket and street basketball bring the public spaces of our cities to life. For many of the most marginalised communities, access to public space for sport is crucial for developing and maintaining a sense of belonging. But as populations grow and competition for playing fields, courts and parks becomes fiercer, many communities are losing access to their sporting spaces.
- Building enhanced collaboration between recreation and sport, Canadian Sport for Life, (2013). The relationship between municipal recreation and sport delivery systems can vary from one jurisdiction to another and among sports within the same community. This report outlines and discusses the relationships between sport and recreation organisations and identifies the challenges each face and the key areas where a collaborative approach can take place.
- Informal Sport as a health and social resource, Ruth Jeanes, Justen O’Connor, Dawn Penney, et al., Monash University, (June 2023). This report summarises findings from phase two of an Australian Research Council (ARC) Linkage project (LP180100038), which aims to enhance our understanding of informal sport in ways that can inform future planning and provision across all tiers of government, sport and community stakeholders. Some key insights include:
- Informal sport offers flexible participation options that fit people’s lifestyles, while still offering the perks many people seek from club-based sporting experience, such as fun, fitness, skill development and social connection.
- Informal sport, as a participation format, ‘works’ for participants. It supports participants to include physical activity amongst other activities and commitments in their lives. Informal groups present opportunities for individuals to access sporting formats that are adapted to suit their ability and needs and within a safe and welcoming environment. Informal sport thereby addresses many of the exclusionary mechanisms associated with other formats of sport.
- Leveraging the potential benefits of informal sport participation locally and nationally requires a shift in policy and planning across all levels of government, to recognise and invest in this growth sector of sport participation.
- Many participants were highly committed and regular participants, playing at least once a week and sometimes two or three times weekly. The survey data indicates that all participants spend at least an hour a week participating in their informal sport, with 53% of respondents participating for three hours and over. However, despite high levels of participation, the importance of the flexibility in commitment that informal participation afforded was emphasised.
- Informal groups were mainly comprised of participants from multicultural and migrant backgrounds, who spoke of their participation enabling them to feel connected to a wider community. This was particularly emphasised by participants in culturally specific groups, who said that informal sports enabled them to connect with other migrants with whom they shared similar cultural and ethnic backgrounds.
- Participants believed informal sport participation contributed positively to their physical and mental health, including supporting them to engage in high levels of physical activity and relieve stress. A core theme of the interviews was the positive impact participation had on mental health, through fostering social connections, providing a space for emotional support and allowing the opportunity to destress and disconnect from day-to-day pressures. These benefits were important to participants and a key driver of their ongoing participation.
- Our survey data indicated that people from this sample who play informal sport have comparative levels of social connection to people who play formal sport or a combination of informal and formal sport.
- The Future of Australian Sport. The second report: Megatrends shaping the sport sector over coming decades, CSIRO/Australian Sports Commission, (December 2022).This report identifies six megatrends that will shape the Australian sport sector over the coming decade and beyond and provides a decadal update on the first ground-breaking report, The Future of Australian Sport: Megatrends shaping the sports sector over coming decades, released by CSIRO and the Australian Sports Commission in 2013. Several of the identified trends highlight the rise in modified, social, and virtual sport engagement.
- Informal Sport as a Health and Social Resource for Diverse Young People, Ruth Jeanes, Dawn Penney, Justen O’Connor, et al., Monash University, (September 2021). The research to date has highlighted the complexity and breadth of informal participation. This includes intersections with formal, club and/or sport association provision. Around 30% of the opportunities we have identified in the research so far, may be considered semistructured and/or characterised as facilitated informal sport. This reflects groups drawing on the mechanisms of more traditional forms of sport (such as leagues and competitions, wearing of uniforms) but in ways that enable participants to engage in informal ways (e.g. no membership fees, no requirement for training, participants can pick and choose when they play). Examples also include participants who move across formal and informal participation opportunities, and clubs and associations that seek to build relationships with informal participants or groups. Due to the diversity of informal sport that we have mapped to date, we would argue that informal sport is best thought of as a significant sector of sport participation in Australia – that intersects with and complements formal sport, contributes to multiple policy agendas, but currently struggles for recognition, access to funding and investment.
- Planning for the provision of leisure and recreation in Australia, Marriot K, Sport and Recreation Tasmania, (2010). Research indicates that recreational, cultural and leisure activities have a major positive influence on personal health and community wellbeing. Recent years have seen a far greater recognition of non-competitive social and recreational activities and most importantly, the critical contribution which leisure and recreation make to the health and wellbeing in the community.
- Informal sport and leisure, urban space and social inequalities: Editors’ Introduction, Sarah Neal, Bonnie Pang, Keith Parry, et al., Leisure Studies, (11 January 2023). While informal sport may appear to be a poor relation of formal sport, participation in informal sport is now more popular than organised club sport. The special issue provides an opportunity to showcase international leisure studies research which variously explores the meaning and implications of informal sport as a growing form of collective leisure activity and the wider social affordances – and strains – of collective leisure practices. The Editors’ Introduction focuses on the ways in which informal sport and leisure depend on sometimes hard-won public (parks, city squares, designed leisure spaces) and reused incidental urban space (e.g. post-industrial areas). It sets out the ways in which informal sport and leisure involves marginalised and precarious urban populations, gives rise to co-ethnic and ethnically diverse identifications, secures senses of belonging and citizenship, is gender and age ex/inclusive and is attractive to policy actors. It outlines how the articles collected in the special issue address what are still under-examined aspects of the informal sport phenomenon.
- Spatial justice, informal sport and Australian community sports participation, Ruth Jeanes, Dawn Penney, Justen O’Connor, et al., Leisure Studies, (11 June 2022). Participation in Australian club-based sport has either plateaued or declined across a broad array of sports over the last 20 years. In contrast, participation in informal forms of sport has increased across the time. Despite the increasing popularity of informal sport, this form of participation continues to lack recognition as a legitimate and valuable avenue for population-wide sport participation. This article focuses on examining the spatial exclusion of informal sport within community sport systems. Theoretically informed by concepts of spatial justice and Lefebvre’s theories of spatial production this article utilises the perspective of multiple stakeholders and a multi-level policy analysis to demonstrate the current spatial injustice that manifests within policy, planning, and use of public spaces and the significant constraints consequently arising for communities wishing to participate in informal sport. We argue that the marginalisation of informal sport is at odds with Australian policy agendas that emphasise an urgent need to increase population levels of physical activity. The article concludes that action to counter spatial injustice within community sport is essential to capitalise on the opportunities that informal participation presents to address key health and social policy priorities.
- Managing informal sport participation: tensions and opportunities, Ruth Jeanes, Ramón Spaaij, Dawn Penney, et al., International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 11(1), pp.79-95, (2019). This article critically examines the role of informal sport within attempts to increase sport participation. Informal sport is a contested concept that government and non-government agencies are grappling with. In this article, the focus is on participation that is self-organised and not club based. The research reported reflects that at present, policy makers and practitioners have not seriously considered how informal sport may be positioned as a central facet in efforts to respond to participation objectives and associated health and social policy agendas. Drawing on semi-structured interviews with stakeholders responsible for promoting community sport participation in Victoria, Australia, the authors explore some of the tensions and challenges that stakeholders experience in supporting and managing informal sport. The findings indicate that current practices limit the potential of informal sport. Drawing on concepts from collaborative governance, the article concludes that changes to both culture and practices within sport development systems are required in order for stakeholders to harness the potential of informal participation.
- Developing informal sport friendly communities: A guide for local governments, Monash University, (2023). Guidance in understanding, planning for, and supporting informal sport participation in local communities.
- Sporting facility booking systems, Monash University, (2023). Tips for developing a booking system to support informal sport groups.
Access to resources
Where possible, direct links to full-text and online resources are provided. However, where links are not available, you may be able to access documents directly by searching our licenced full-text databases (note: user access restrictions apply). Alternatively, you can ask your institutional, university, or local library for assistance—or purchase documents directly from the publisher. You may also find the information you’re seeking by searching Google Scholar.
Social sport
Social sport, sometimes called informal sport, is a term used to identify engagement in sport in a less formal context.
Related concepts
Esport
Esports (electronic sports) is a collective term used to describe organized, competitive, video gaming. 24
Not every video game is considered an esport (e.g., the Sims). Examples of esport games include tactical (or first person) shooter), multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA), fighting, real-time strategy (RTS), and sports SIM (simulation games of traditional sports e.g. FIFA and NBA). 24
An emerging genre is also simulated sports and/or ‘fitness gaming’ (e.g. Hado, Zwift). These genres replicate sport and physical activity on a digital platform, where participants compete or train with an online community. 25
There is considerable debate around whether esports can be considered ‘sports’ and if they should be recognised as such (which can facilitate new avenues of funding and the potential to engage more people). 26, 27
Esport advocates argue that it meets many of the criteria for traditional sport recognition. They arephysical (require skill/fine motor control),competitive (have winners and losers within detailed rules and regulations), andorganised (tournaments, national and international organising bodies). 28, 29
The value of the esport industry (billions of dollars, with multiple professional leagues, hundreds of thousands of professional players and fans, and even purpose-built stadiums) and the rise in popularity of simulated sport and augmented/virtual platforms has led to further pressure on sports organisations and governments to consider recognition and/or integration of these activities as ‘sports’, including the potential for inclusion in the Olympic and Paralympic Games programs. 30, 31, 32, 33
For more information see the Esports topic.
- Esports, Wikipedia, (accessed 10 January 2024). Esports (also known as electronic sports, e-sports, or eSports) is a form of sport competition using video games. Esports often takes the form of organized, multiplayer video game competitions, particularly between professional players, individually or as teams.
- Is An Esport Really a Sport? Phil Birch and Edgar Chekera, Psychology Today, (19 April 2020). Although a somewhat controversial debate, an esport can be considered a sport. With this consideration enters the interest of sport-related disciplines investigating how they can best fit within the esports industry. This includes physiotherapy, nutrition and psychology, to name a few.
- Esports is the future of all sports – here’s why, Andy Miah, Chair in Science Communication and Future Media, University of Salford, The Conversation, (23 October 2019). The future of all sports is esports. That may sound like a bold statement but there is growing evidence to support it. Today’s spectators and participants expect to be digitally engaged while they watch. And the most effective way to deliver digital engagement is through “gamification” – the transformation of watching into playing.
- As E-Sports Grow, So Do Their Homes, C.J. Hughes, New York Times, (28 May 2019). The $10 million Esports Stadium Arlington in Texas, which opened in November in the city’s convention center, is the largest e-sports center in North America, with flexible seating, a state-of-the-art broadcast studio and an 85-foot-long LED wall. And in Philadelphia, developers are planning to build Fusion Arena, the first new United States construction to be dedicated to professional gaming, offering 3,500 seats and a training facility.
- What is eSports? A look at an explosive billion-dollar industry, AJ Willingham, CNN, (27 August 2018). eSports describes the world of competitive, organized video gaming. Competitors from different leagues or teams face off in the same games that are popular with at-home gamers: Fortnite, League of Legends, Counter-Strike, Call of Duty, Overwatch and Madden NFL, to name a few. These gamers are watched and followed by millions of fans all over the world, who attend live events or tune in on TV or online. Streaming services like Twitch allow viewers to watch as their favorite gamers play in real time, and this is typically where popular gamers build up their fandoms.
- The Future of Australian Sport. The second report: Megatrends shaping the sport sector over coming decades, CSIRO/Australian Sports Commission, (December 2022). This report identifies six megatrends that will shape the Australian sport sector over the coming decade and beyond and provides a decadal update on the first ground-breaking report, The Future of Australian Sport: Megatrends shaping the sports sector over coming decades, released by CSIRO and the Australian Sports Commission in 2013. Several of the identified trends highlight the rise in modified, social, and virtual sport engagement.
- Olympic Agenda 2020+5: 15 recommendations, International Olympic Committee, (May 2020). Recommendation 9: Encourage the development of virtual sports and further engage with video gaming communities. As these virtual sports develop, the roles and responsibilities of IFs around virtual sports will increase. Therefore, it is important that IFs ensure good governance and necessary regulations around sports simulations (cf. recommendation 1).The objective of this direct engagement is to encourage sports participation and promote the Olympic values with a special focus on youth. In addition, these products and experiences can fill the gap between virtual sports and the Olympic Games, creating valuable brand associations with IFs and their respective virtual sports. This could include looking at feasibility studies to anticipate potential proposals from IFs to include their respective physical virtual sports in the Olympic programme for future editions of the Olympic Games. Video games are bringing communities together with people gathering around their passion. By entering strategic partnerships with those communities at a regional level, sports organisations can reach youth demographics outside of their direct environment and get these youth engaged in sport while reaching out to new populations (cf. recommendation 12). As elite esports and gaming competitors are relatively new to the highly competitive environment, they have more limited access to resources than athletes in traditional sports. The IOC recognises these challenges and aims to adapt various existing tools and resources to support them in different fields such as gender equality, mental and physical health, competition integrity and career transition.
- IF Gaming and Esports Strategy, Association of Summer Olympic International Federations (ASOIF), (September 2019). This report aims to deliver a clear understanding of the gaming and esports market landscape, to support IFs in devising a structured approach on how to address strategic questions and most importantly, to outline strategic positioning options to help IFs define a way forward. The research has provided extensive information for our various internal groups and resulted in some recommendations for our IFs.
- Major determinants for International Federations to adopt esports as part of their digitalisation strategies, Association of Summer Olympic International Federations (ASOIF), (2019). The significant economic potential of the esports business has led many IFs to show interest in taking advantage of the opportunities presented by the esports world. They have begun to consider building their own esports platforms and electronic versions of their sports. However, it is clear that the individual characteristics of all sports are not equal in terms of their easy adaptation to an esports version. The purpose of this study is to answer a key question: what are the major determinants for these IFs to decide whether or not to adopt esports as part of their digitalisation strategies and to propose some recommendations for the IFs’ successful implementation of an esports platform? The results obtained through the questionnaire found that the majority of the IFs is currently undertaking esports projects with a basic understanding of what esports exactly is before they make a final decision, even though most of them remain at an early stage. Regarding the decision-making at the organisational level, the major determinants for IFs are generally based on economic and rational arguments. Interestingly, most IFs expect to see “transfer effects” from their proposed esports engagement to support the development of their existing sport offerings.
- Actually, Esports Is Sport: A Response to Parry’s (2019) Misguided View, Michael Naraine, Sports Innovation Journal, Volume 2, pp.33-44, (2021). Esports should not simply be discounted because it looks different than traditional sport offerings, Olympic or otherwise (Cunningham et al., 2018). With a more stringent look, naysayers like Parry would be surprised to learn that esports actually does meet their defining characteristics of traditional sport (Walton et al., 2020). Furthermore, upon closer inspection, Parry’s other pillar appears quite weak. In fact, Parry provides no considerable, conclusive evidence to suggest stakeholders are advocating for esports to be an Olympic sport. Rather, the evidence suggests that the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the Olympic Movement is trying to capitalize on esports’ growth and salience among youth demographics (IOC, 2019; Tarrant, 2018). Consequently, it is important to counter Parry’s inaccurate claims and provide further color to an important topic that will become more prominent with the ever-increasing digitization and virtualization of our world (Mastromartino et al., 2020). Thus, the following rebuttal to Parry’s (2019) piece highlights the instability of both foundations, and emphasizes why it is important to not discredit new sport forms without a substantive argument.
- eSports – Competitive sports or recreational activity? Hallmann, Kirstin; Giel, Thomas, Sport Management Review, Volume 21(1), (February 2018). eSports is growing around the globe, with more and more individuals are engaged as players or spectators. In this paper, the authors reflect on whether eSports can be considered as sport based on evaluating five characteristics of sport and assessing them for eSports. Currently, eSports are not a sport but there is the potential that eSports will become a sport. Different opportunities how marketers and managers can attend to eSports are outlined.
- Virtual(ly) athletes: Where eSports fit within the definition of “Sport”, Jenny S, Manning D, Keiper M and Olrich T, Quest, Volume 69(1), pp.1-18, (2017). The worldwide popularity of competitive video gaming has opened the question, “is it sport”. Competitive video gaming fits within (at least in part) most of the philosophical and sociological definitions of ‘sport’. It incorporates play, organisation, competition, skill, physicality (i.e. to some degree), has a broad following and recognition by institutions (e.g. government, education, etc.). With the decline of the percentage of the population (particularly youth) engaging in physical activity, eSport has the potential to bridge the gap between sedentary activities and physical sport through motion-based video gaming. In the United States, several universities have added video gaming to their suite of intercollegiate sports. The US government now recognises (for employment and income tax purposes) professional eSports-persons in the same way as professional sports-persons in other disciplines (e.g. baseball, football, basketball, golf, etc.).
Access to resources
Where possible, direct links to full-text and online resources are provided. However, where links are not available, you may be able to access documents directly by searching our licenced full-text databases (note: user access restrictions apply). Alternatively, you can ask your institutional, university, or local library for assistance—or purchase documents directly from the publisher. You may also find the information you’re seeking by searching Google Scholar.
Esport
Esports (electronic sports) is a collective term used to describe organized, competitive, video gaming.
Related concepts
Adventure, urban, and extreme sports
Adventure and urban sports often use elements of traditional sports (e.g. the performance skills involved with running, cycling, paddling, skiing, etc.), but in a modified format and in outdoor environments. The core elements of sport (physical exertion and/or skill, competition, rules, and organisations) apply, but not in a traditional sense. 25
Examples of adventure and urban sports include BMX freestyle, skate sports, adventure racing, parkour, urban climbing, and more. 25
Adventure and urban sports emphasise resourcefulness, cooperation, group-cohesion, physical fitness, and proficiency. There may also be an element of managed risk, and this usually adds to the appeal. 25
These activities often appeal to the non-conforming individuals, especially youth audiences, more than formal sports and may be popularised through being filmed or showcased on social media and YouTube. 25
Extreme sports
The public perception of ‘what is sport’ has changed over time. Some sport activities that may have once been considered ‘extreme’ have been modified and structured into mainstream sport. 25 Conversely, mainstream sports have been modified to become ‘extreme’ (e.g., ‘extreme skiing’). 34
Extreme sports usually involve speed, height, physical exertion, significant risk of death or injury, and may require highly specialised equipment. 35, 36 In many cases a sport is modified (to the extreme), so that new rules change the sport action into something new; or in some cases no rules apply. 35 Extreme sports are increasingly popular in terms of spectator appeal, media coverage, and corporate sponsorship. 37
Extreme sports may apply the three criteria of a ‘sport’—competition, rules, and organisational structure—but in different ways. Fewer or different rules are likely to apply, competition may be with oneself (rather than an opponent) or against the environment, and organisations (where they exist) generally sit outside mainstream international sporting federations or associations. 35, 37, 38
Two examples of different evolutionary paths involving extreme sports are:
- Sky diving. Once considered an extreme activity, over many years it has integrated itself into an accepted sporting code, ‘Sports Jumping’. Skydiving events for individuals and teams are now sanctioned by national and international federations. Competition events have rules, they are judged on athletic and artistic merit, scored according to judging criteria, and the results are recorded.
- Downhill ski racing was one of the original alpine disciplines recognised by the world governing body of skiing (FIS), and is an exciting, fast, and technical sport. 39 However, extreme downhill skiing, also known as ‘big mountain skiing’ has taken the risk to a new level. There are no ‘rules’ per se, no course, and no limit to the conditions which challenge extreme skiers to demonstrate what is humanly possible. 40
- How To Develop Urban Sport By Adapting The City Landscape, Paysalia, (18 July 2018). The boom in urban sport impacts every town and city and urban planning has to reflect this trend. To provide a framework for this transformation, the French Sports Ministry has published a report on the role of public authorities in the valorization of sport in urban environments. This is our summary.
- The Future of Australian Sport. The second report: Megatrends shaping the sport sector over coming decades,CSIRO/Australian Sports Commission, (December 2022). This report identifies six megatrends that will shape the Australian sport sector over the coming decade and beyond and provides a decadal update on the first ground-breaking report, The Future of Australian Sport: Megatrends shaping the sports sector over coming decades, released by CSIRO and the Australian Sports Commission in 2013. Several of the identified trends highlight the rise in modified, social, and virtual sport engagement. The Next Arena megatrend includes details of the recent, and likely continuing, rise in adventure and urban sports.
- Editorial: Understanding Extreme Sports: A Psychological Perspective, Eric Brymer, Francesco Feletti, Erik Monasterio, et al., Frontiers in Psychology, Volume 10, (January 2020). A new class of sport has emerged in the last few decades, variously called extreme, adventure, action, and lifestyle sports. These activities are revolutionizing the notion of sport, exercise and physical activity and overtaking many traditional sports in terms of participation, and influence. They have developed into a significant worldwide phenomenon with considerable social and economic impact. While participant numbers in many traditional team and individual sports such as golf, basketball, and racket sports have declined over the last decade or so, participant numbers in so-called extreme sports have surged. The current trajectory suggests that traditional sports will soon play second fiddle to these new and exciting opportunities. With the continually rising participation rates in these activities, science and medicine is starting to give these sports the same attention already given to traditional sports. However, this attention needs to consider the unique and nuanced characteristics of the people involved, their motivation, and the activities. As already noted and further highlighted by many articles in this special edition, extreme sports are not well-served by approaches that stem from traditional sports research.
- Defining Extreme Sport: Conceptions and Misconceptions, Rhonda Cohen, Bahman Baluch, Linda Duffy, Frontiers in Psychology, Volume 9, (October 2018). The aim of this article is twofold: firstly, to demonstrate whether the term “extreme sport” in scientific terms, has developed into a misnomer, misleading in the context of the sports it tends to encompass, secondly, to propose a revised, more accurate definition of extreme sport, reflective of the activities it encompasses in the context of other non-mainstream sports. Based on this review it is argued that a new definition of an extreme sport is one of “a (predominantly) competitive (comparison or self-evaluative) activity within which the participant is subjected to natural or unusual physical demands. Moreover, an unsuccessful outcome is “likely to result in the injury or fatality of the participant, in contrast to non-extreme sport”.
- To Analyze Thrill, Define Extreme Sports, Ralf Buckley, Frontiers in Psychology, Volume 9, (July 2018). Extreme sports can provide an ethically and experimentally feasible tool to analyze thrill. To use this tool, extreme sports must first be defined in a non-circular way, independent of participant psychology. Existing concepts, from different disciplines, focus, respectively, on drama, activity types, or consequences of error. Here, I draw upon academic and popular literature, and autoethnographic experience, to distinguish extreme from adventurous levels for a range of different outdoor sports. I conclude that extreme outdoor adventure sports can be defined objectively as those activities, conditions, and levels, where participant survival relies on moment-by-moment skill, and any error is likely to prove fatal. This allows us to examine the motivations, experiences, and transformations of individuals who undertake these activities. In particular, it will allow us to examine the emotional experience of thrill, previously studied principally as an aspect of personality, from new neurophysiological and evolutionary perspectives.
- Action sports for youth development: critical insights for the SDP community, Thorpe H, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 8(1), pp.91-116, (2016). This article identifies new trends in youth sport participation, particularly the growing popularity of non-competitive, informal, non-institutionalised ‘action sports’ (e.g., skateboarding, moto-cross, kite-surfing, snowboarding). A number of international examples and qualitative research, including interviews and media analysis, are cited. The discussion considers the potential of action sports for making a contribution to the sport for development and peace (SDP) movement.
- Examining group walks in nature and multiple aspects of well-being: a large-scale study, Marselle M, Irvine K and Warber S, Ecopsychology, Volume 6(3), pp.134-147, (2014). Outdoor walking groups promote the benefits of social interaction, connections with nature, and physical activity. This study sought to identify the mental, emotional, and social wellbeing benefits from participating in group walks in nature. A sample of 1,516 adults belonging to either ‘Nature Group Walkers’ or non-walkers were compared. Controlling for covariates, this research found that participants in walking groups suffered significantly less depression and perceived stress, as well as having enhanced feelings of wellbeing. This study identifies the mental and emotional wellbeing benefits derived from participation in group walks in nature and supports the potential mental health benefits of outdoor group walk programs.
Access to resources
Where possible, direct links to full-text and online resources are provided. However, where links are not available, you may be able to access documents directly by searching our licenced full-text databases (note: user access restrictions apply). Alternatively, you can ask your institutional, university, or local library for assistance—or purchase documents directly from the publisher. You may also find the information you’re seeking by searching Google Scholar.
Adventure, urban, and extreme sport
Core elements of sport (physical exertion and/or skill, competition, rules, and organisations) may apply, but not in a traditional sense.
Related concepts
Recreation
“Recreation is an activity that people engage in during their free time, that people enjoy, and that people recognise as having socially redeeming values. The activity performed is less important than the reason for performing the activity, which is the outcome”. 41
‘Active recreation’ (e.g., hiking, paddling, cycling, jogging) is generally non-competitive physical activity engaged in for the purpose of relaxation, health and wellbeing or enjoyment. 2, 8, 42 These activities can have many of the characteristics of sport, including being social (when done with friends, likeminded people, or in organised groups) and involving a progression of participation and movement skills across the life course. 42
Governments, particularly local jurisdictions, provide open space and facilities (e.g., parks, ovals, indoor and outdoor facilities) for recreational activity. 43, 44 However, people generally engage in active recreation at a time that suits their needs, and in a less-formal setting that may include, but does not rely upon, varying degrees of competition, rules, and organisational involvement. 42, 44
- Action area 6: Sport and active recreation, Salmon J, Eime R, Brown H et al., in: Blueprint for an Active Australia. 3rd ed., National Heart Foundation of Australia, (2019). Active recreation has been defined as those activities ‘engaged in for the purpose of relaxation, health and wellbeing or enjoyment with the primary activity requiring physical exertion, and the primary focus on human activity’. Participation in these activities is linked positively to physical, social and cognitive health.
- Active Impacts: The economic impacts of active recreation in Victoria, Marsden Jacob for Sport and Recreation Victoria, (March 2018). Active recreation in Victoria is extremely diverse. It can be undertaken alone or with others, and ranges from walking, yoga and barefoot bowls to trail running, cycling, parkour and abseiling. As distinct from competition sport, active recreation is engaged in for relaxation, health and wellbeing or enjoyment. The primary activity requires physical exertion, and the primary focus is on human activity. This report shows that active recreation is a larger part of Victorians’ physical activity than organised sport. It also shows that active recreation accounts for more physical activity sessions, time and energy expenditure than sport by a significant margin. Active recreation is a significant contributor to the Victorian economy, and a larger part of the economy than most of us realise. Around $8.3 billion is spent each year on active recreation in Victoria. That expenditure makes a $8.1 billion value-added contribution to the state’s economy and supports around 51,000 direct and indirect full-time equivalent jobs. Based on work by Deakin Health Economics commissioned for this project, we estimate that making every Victorian adult physically active would deliver healthcare system benefits worth $245 million. It would also deliver workplace production benefits potentially worth $3.1 billion over the lifetime of this population, based on estimates of production lost due to people leaving work because of death or disability. And it would provide home-based labour production benefits worth around $125 million.
- The value of community sport infrastructure: Investigating the value of community sport facilities to Australia, KPMG for the Australian Sports Commission, (2018). For the purposes of this project, community sport infrastructure is considered to be any of the following that supports local, regional or state based sport or sporting activities: Outdoor sport and recreation facilities (including playing fields, ovals and courts); Indoor sport and recreation facilities; Indoor and outdoor aquatic facilities; Multi-use sporting hubs, and Amenities and facilities associated with the above.
- Examining group walks in nature and multiple aspects of well-being: a large-scale study, Marselle M, Irvine K and Warber S, Ecopsychology, Volume 6(3), pp.134-147, (2014). Outdoor walking groups promote the benefits of social interaction, connections with nature, and physical activity. This study sought to identify the mental, emotional, and social wellbeing benefits from participating in group walks in nature. A sample of 1,516 adults belonging to either ‘Nature Group Walkers’ or non-walkers were compared. Controlling for covariates, this research found that participants in walking groups suffered significantly less depression and perceived stress, as well as having enhanced feelings of wellbeing. This study identifies the mental and emotional wellbeing benefits derived from participation in group walks in nature and supports the potential mental health benefits of outdoor group walk programs.
- Monash Active Recreation Opportunities Strategy, City of Monash, (November 2021). The City of Monash provides a network of parks and reserves across the municipality that provide space for sport, recreation and play. Parks and reserves have traditionally been developed to cater for organised sport and play, but facilities that create opportunities for active recreation are only now becoming prominent due to increasing demand. Active recreation has emerged as an increasing important contributor to the health and wellbeing of communities. While all physical activity is important to build healthy and connected communities, active recreation has become increasingly important due to the flexibility it provides for people to participate ‘in their own way’. Active recreation is defined as activity that is noncompetitive and outside of organised sport or play. Active recreation is undertaken in a person's leisure time and is focused on health and fitness, fun, enjoyment and social connection. Active recreation is less structured than sport, providing flexibility to participate at times and in places that are convenient. Active recreation can be undertaken individually or in groups, and is primarily self-initiated by the participant.
- Every Body Active Strategic Plan 2020-2024, Sport New Zealand, (2020). When we refer to the Play, Active Recreation and Sport system we’re talking about central and local government agencies, regional sports trusts, sport organisations, private and commercial providers, schools, clubs, teams, investors, social groups and families. It encompasses the collection of regulations, organisations, places and people who directly or indirectly participate, support, contribute to or influence Play, Active Recreation and Sport in Aotearoa New Zealand. There are four domains to physical activity: active leisure, active transport, household chores and occupational activity. Our role and core purpose is within the active leisure domain. It is here where we seek to improve physical activity levels through Play, Active Recreation and Sport to ensure the greatest impact on wellbeing of all those living within Aotearoa New Zealand.
Access to resources
Where possible, direct links to full-text and online resources are provided. However, where links are not available, you may be able to access documents directly by searching our licenced full-text databases (note: user access restrictions apply). Alternatively, you can ask your institutional, university, or local library for assistance—or purchase documents directly from the publisher. You may also find the information you’re seeking by searching Google Scholar.
Recreation
Active recreation is generally non-competitive physical activity engaged in for the purpose of relaxation, health and wellbeing, or enjoyment.
Related concepts
Play
'Play' refers to physical activities that are freely undertaken for pleasure. It is generally fun (although it can be serious) and participatory, intrinsically motivated, unstructured, and free of externally imposed rules (e.g., for children not directed by adults). 4
There is evidence that play is linked to positive cognitive and social development benefits for children, which suggests that it is an important area of focus for improving overall health and wellbeing long term. 45, 46
While often considered an activity for children, play, as a creative expression of physical activity, is also a valuable activity for adults that can help improve social and mental wellbeing and improves cognitive flexibility and alertness. 46, 47, 48, 49
- Play for adults, National Institute for Play, (accessed 11 January 2024). Over the last 30 years, science has shown that play is very productive for humans at any age; we need play to keep our brains flexible, ward off depression, sustain optimism, and sharpen our social-emotional skills.
- Play, Psychology Today, (accessed 11 January 2024). Play—or fun, imaginative, relaxed, and self-directed activities—is a key part of life for children and adults alike. Play tends to be self-chosen, removed in some way from “real” life, and governed by a set of rules determined by the players, rather than an outside source. Play has myriad payoffs and is more common in children than adults; however, adults can and do play, often to their own benefit.
- The Importance of Play for Adults, Saya Des Marais, PsychCentral, (updated November 2022). We all know that play is important for children. Kids need play to develop and we automatically add play time into their daily schedules. Research shows that play is critical for adults’ well-being too — but many of us don’t play enough anymore. Anything you do recreationally that brings you joy or excitement counts as playing, whether it’s getting stuck into a video game, playing sports, collecting stamps, or writing short stories in your spare time. Whatever style of play works for you, know that making time for it can have substantial benefits for your mental and physical well-being.
- The Play Return: A review of the wider impact of play initiatives, Gill T, commissioned by the Children’s Play Policy Forum, United Kingdom, (2014). This report presents evidence to build the case for improving play opportunities for children; the focus is on children of primary school age. It looks at quantitative evidence of the wider outcomes and impact of play interventions and initiatives. The report looks at four types of interventions that each target a different setting: (1) opportunities for free play during school breaks; (2) unsupervised public access play facilities; (3) supervised out-of-school (before/after) activities; and (4) street play initiatives. Drawing on this review of the empirical evidence, the report reaches the following conclusions about the wider impact of play initiatives:
- Play initiatives lead to improvements in children’s physical and mental health and well-being and are linked to a range of other cognitive and social developmental benefits. While evidence of beneficial outcomes is strongest for play in schools, it is reasonable to expect the same outcome in other contexts where children have comparable play experiences.
- Families and communities, as well as children, benefit from play initiatives. Play initiatives generate high levels of volunteering and community action by adults. This finding is echoed by the consistently strong support for play initiatives stated in opinion polls.
- Play initiatives are associated with inter-related benefits across a range of health and developmental domains.
- The improvement in opportunities for play is a valid outcome in its own right. When combined with the well documented benefits of play’s contribution to health; physical and cognitive development; and social skills, the case for greater play opportunities is well supported.
- Playful sport design: A game changer? Sarina Verwijmeren, Juriena de Vries, Arnold Bakker, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, Volume 36(1), pp.45-74, (2024). Article introduce the concept Playful Sport Design (PSD), which refers to athletes’ proactive addition of play elements to their sports training. Authors present a scale that reliably and validly measures PSD. Further, they show that PSD is positively associated with immersion in sports training and sports performance. Results of this paper could result in more awareness among adult athletes that play during sports training has beneficial sports outcomes and open the door for practitioners to develop PSD interventions, through which athletes are taught how they can approach their training sessions in a more playful manner.
- Why just exercise if you can play? Interest in a modified sports program to enhance physical activity among primary care patients, Christopher Sciamanna, Andrew Mowen, Jennifer Kraschnewski, et.al., Preventive Medicine Reports, Volume 8, pp.273-278, (December 2017). This survey was designed to determine the interest of primary care patients in participating in program designed to maximize enjoyment. Primary care patients (n=540) in Central Pennsylvania reported their interest in participating in a “a regular fitness program where people your own age played games, such as softball, floor hockey and soccer, that were made to be easier to play and less competitive.” Mean age was 58.4 years. More than one-third, including 59.6% of those under age 50, were interested in the modified sports fitness program. After adjusting for confounders, patients under age 40 were 5.9 times as interested (v. age > 70) and non-white patients were 3.4 times interested. Female patients and those with hypertension, high cholesterol or obesity were equally interested. A fitness program that consists of modified sports may be of interest to most primary care patients under age 50. Patients' initial interest appears high enough to warrant further development and testing.
- You think you are too old to play? Playing games and aging, Bronkkowska M, Bronikowski M and Schott N, Human Movement, Volume 12(1), (2011). Among the elderly, exercise compliance presents a barrier to improved health through physical activity. Older persons tend to drop out of programs that may be ‘too organised’ or too challenging. This paper explores the rationale for using traditional games to encourage physical activity, and as a way of engaging the elderly in social activities. Such activities do not have specialised skill requirements and may be useful as a form of physiotherapy.
- Every Body Active Strategic Plan 2020-2024, Sport New Zealand, (2020). When we refer to the Play, Active Recreation and Sport system we’re talking about central and local government agencies, regional sports trusts, sport organisations, private and commercial providers, schools, clubs, teams, investors, social groups and families. It encompasses the collection of regulations, organisations, places and people who directly or indirectly participate, support, contribute to or influence Play, Active Recreation and Sport in Aotearoa New Zealand. There are four domains to physical activity: active leisure, active transport, household chores and occupational activity. Our role and core purpose is within the active leisure domain. It is here where we seek to improve physical activity levels through Play, Active Recreation and Sport to ensure the greatest impact on wellbeing of all those living within Aotearoa New Zealand.
- Play Australia is the peak national advocacy organisation for Play. They support outdoor play by way of inspiration, advice, access to information and professional services. As the Australian branch of the International Play Association (IPA) they also help to protect the human rights of all children to play, as recognised within Article 31 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.
- 1000 Play Streets Toolkit, Play Australia, (accessed 11 January 2024). 1000 Play Streets is a movement for Australians to reclaim their quiet residential streets as places for neighbours of all ages to connect and play, to create stronger and healthier communities.
Access to resources
Where possible, direct links to full-text and online resources are provided. However, where links are not available, you may be able to access documents directly by searching our licenced full-text databases (note: user access restrictions apply). Alternatively, you can ask your institutional, university, or local library for assistance—or purchase documents directly from the publisher. You may also find the information you’re seeking by searching Google Scholar.
Play
Play refers to physical activities that are freely undertaken for pleasure, without externally imposed rules.
